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Teachers' Guide |
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INTRODUCTION TO "LE GUIDE D’ECOLE" "THE TEACHER’S GUIDE" Br Tony Butler (27.7.99) (These notes are based on a study of the text by Br Danilo Farneda, Marist Notebooks No.5, May 1994, pp.49 ff.) What is The Teacher’s Guide? The Teacher’s Guide is a teacher training manual, both theoretical and practical, and was used by the Marist Brothers from 1853 till the middle of this century. The text was studied and approved by the Second Session of the Second General Chapter, May 1853, and went through six editions in French, the last appearing in 1942. The English edition was printed in 1931 Until 1853 the Marist Brothers used Jean-Baptiste de la Salle’s "La Conduite des Ecoles Chrétiennes" (On the Conduct of [The Running of] Christian Schools). That was replaced by The Teacher’s Guide, which in turn represented the integration of the educational principles popularised by the Conduite and the results of practical educational insights and a certain Marist style acquired over 35 years.Historical background to the text The story of the need for schools in France at this time is familiar to us: the social forces of post-Revolutionary France realised that the school, especially a school based on Catholic teachings, was an ideal means of constructing a new national order. The de la Salle Brothers were once again legally recognised in December 1803 – "Les Grands Frères" were officially invited to participate in public education. But there was a great gap between the available resources of the de la Salle Brothers and the needs of the country, so the foundation of new Congregations of religious was encouraged. Thus were born the "Petits Frères" – the men of the moment, who would play a very important role in restoring faith and morality in the country. And among the new congregations were the Marist Brothers founded by Marcellin Champagnat who had himself experienced the consequences of the deplorable state of the national education system – his personal inability to read or write till he was 16, his one day at school, his observation of the local scene, the episode of the Montagne boy are stories quite familiar to us. While civil society considered religion to be the cornerstone of ethics and civil order there were passionate conflicts over educative methods: the replacement of the individual method by the simultaneous method and in turn the mixed method was initiated by the introduction in 1815 of the mutual method. The simultaneous-mutual, or mixed, method selected what was good from these two pedagogical approaches, and The Teacher’s Guide was to reap the fruit of this period of political and pedagogical change. The Need for The Teacher’s Guide The Teacher’s Guide is not merely product of a political and educational context: it is an attempt to respond to the complex and concrete needs within the Marist Brothers’ congregation itself: the rapid the legal recognition received by the Congregation (June, 1851),gaining autonomy from the Marist Fathers,the inadequacy of the Rules which had directed the Marist Brothers up to that timethe need to control the multiplicity of methods used by the Brothers.These circumstances necessitated new guidelines to respond to the challenges of the time. So The Teacher’s Guide becomes a part of the new normative framework of the Institute as a means of establishing educational uniformity and of obtaining the qualifications for the service rendered by the Brothers in the communes. The process of compilation of The Teacher’s Guide and who wrote it. Around 1845 Br Jean-Baptiste Furet, second Assistant General, drew up a draft of the document and submitted it to the General Administration of the Marist Brothers. However, it was not until the Second General Chapter of the Institute (First Session 1852) that any moves were made to publish the text. At that significant Chapter, the first after Champagnat’s death in 1840, the General Administration wanted a new Rule for the Institute. It was to consist of three sections: the the Teacher’s Guide, clarifying the means of giving the children a Christian education; andthe Rules of Government, creating structures to ensure that the directions of the other documents were followed.A "Commission of the Guide" was established after the first session of the Chapter, and between June 1852 and May 1853 it studied Br Jean-Baptiste’s initial draft and introduced a number of amendments to it. The Second Session of the Second General Chapter (May 1853) studied, revised and finally approved the document. It has to be said that while the bulk of the text may have come from the pen of Brother Jean-Baptiste, the Chapter Assembly had some involvement in the editorial process.
The sources of The Teacher’s Guide It is not that the contents of the text as we have it are pure or even primarily Jean-Baptiste. The Teacher’s Guide is dependent on a number of sources: La Conduite is the primary source, but various other pedagogical treatises were consulted by the author of the draft, the members of the General Administration and the Commission for the Guide chosen from the Chapter capitulants.The Marist Brothers themselves also contributed to the text of The Teacher’s Guide, often in the form of notes taken from Champagnat’s Summer Schools and later passed on to Brother Jean-Baptist. [THIS IS EXACTLY WHAT HAPPENED IN THE PROCESS OF WRITING new document, which is entitled "In the Footsteps of Marcellin Champagnat. A Vision for Marist Education Today".] But other sources include: Ratio Studiorum [The Theory of Learning – or A Method of Studies] of the Jesuits, The Catechetical Method of the Sulpician School, A Treatise on the Education of Girls, by François Fenelon; A Treatise on Studies, by Charles Rollin; The Twelve Virtues of a Good Teacher, by Br Agathon FEC [ie,, FSC] On Education, by Felix Dupanloup, The Catechism of the Archdiocese of Lyon. Homilies or Explanation of the Gospels, by Cardinal de la Luzerne. This list is not exhaustive. [Reference to these authors can be found at the back of ALS Originality of The Teacher’s Guide: No claim is made to propound an original pedagogy; but The Teacher’s Guide responds to the needs of the Marist scholastic mission. The need to promote unity in teaching method and to provide a formation manual for new teachers was the principal motive behind the publication of a book adapted to the particular situations and traditions of the Marist Brothers. (It is not the point of these talks to examine how The Teacher’s Guide differs from its sources.) Educative contents of The Teacher’s Guide: The ultimate aim of the educative service of the Marist Brothers is to create the necessary conditions for the children to reach eternal salvation – ie, "to form good Christians and good citizens", which according to The Teacher’s Guide involves the formation of "the whole child." The aim of the General Administration in publishing The Teacher’s Guide was to clarify the methodology of teaching and also to present a model of the teacher who had to put it into practice. The profile of the educator, whose fundamental characteristics are set out in The Teacher’s Guide, provides a professional frame of reference for the Marist Brothers.
OVERVIEW OF TEACHER’S GUIDE While so much of this text was taught to us – Novices in the late Fifties – and passed on by the Brothers at the chalk face, some of the significant points were lost, especially the attitude towards corporal punishment. Our discussions will address three of the four parts of the text: Part One – which deals with the nature of Education as it is understood in the Marist Brothers tradition; Part Two – Discipline, Teaching and Organisation; Part Three – The Religious Educator. I will not address the final part which deals with the methods of teaching certain subjects. If you have looked at the new "Teacher’s Guide" - In the Footsteps of Marcellin Champagnat – you will quickly realise that this original edition is a far more prescriptive text. Reasons for looking at Teacher’s Guide: historical interest; sense of charm in some of the reflections; valuable reminders which we may never have adverted to – the book still has much of value for practising teachersBr François writes 2 July 1853 a preface to the first edition of the Guide: "The book has been long desired and faithfully follows the rules and instructions of our saintly founder on the subject of the education of youth. The aim is to imbue our minds with his spirit, to revive and reproduce it that it might be conveyed to you and be perpetuated among us." Amongst other things the Founder entered into the minutest details of the subject, he spoke feelingly of the children in the lowest class, he exhorted the Brothers to lavish every care upon the young souls whom by reason of their innocence he designated as little angels. "The love of God filled his heart and the tender love he had for children revealed to him all their wants and the means of relieving them, also the secret of winning their confidence, inspiring them to piety and developing all the powers of their soul. "This talent which, unknown to himself, he possessed to a high degree and the ardent zeal that animated him for the sanctification of children – these are the features that constitute the Guide." Br François mentions five points which are contributed by Champagnat: the method of teaching reading; the qualities of sound discipline (based on moral authority and kindness at a time when corporal punishment was in wide use); the importance he assigned to Catechism; the teaching of singing (neglected in primary schools); the rules concerning the training of young Brothers. The Preface continues: The 1907 General Chapter decided on a revision of the Guide, but the text preserves the teaching of Champagnat and the traditions of the Institute concerning the Christian education of youth. The General Chapter of 1920 approved the changes and modifications and presented a new edition of the Guide "in which the spirit of our Venerable Founder is preserved, notwithstanding the various adaptations introduced to meet so many new conditions." The first English Edition (1931) preserves the teaching of the Founder intact.
PART ONE – EDUCATION Chapter One – Education in General To be complete, Education must embrace the physical as well as the intellectual and moral life of the child. The aim of education is to furnish the child with the means of attaining his natural destiny in this world, and his supernatural end which is the salvation of his soul.Importance of education:
for Education must be adapted to the nature of the child. [We must continually strive to be faithful to this.] There are four elements: physical education, intellectual education, moral and religious education, and social education. The aim of the Brothers: "to fashion good Catholics and worthy citizens". The teaching and practice of religion constitute the essential purpose which Champagnat had in mind in founding the Institute. It is a sacred duty for the Brothers to give this a place of honour in their teaching without neglecting the other branches of learning.
Chapter 2 – Physical Education The body must be allowed to develop " the vigour necessary for the proper discharge of the duties of daily life". Not for the purpose of "flattering the senses or gratifying natural inclinations." Chapter Three: Intellectual Education This aims at developing: 1) Perception: 2) Judgement and reason 3) Imagination 4) Memory Chapter Four – Moral Education and Sensibility Training of the Heart. Training in Politeness. For the good Catholic, politeness has a deeper significance than mere regard to the proprieties of life: Christian politeness consists in the sentiments of esteem, respect and consideration. Example being more powerful than precept, the Brothers will not fail to be models of politeness to their pupils. Special attention should be given to developing a tender compassion and charity towards the poor, the unfortunate and the afflicted. [Strong sense of social justice] Although politeness does not constitute the whole of education it is the hallmark which distinguishes it … often the estimate of the education given at a school rests upon the manners of the pupils. [!!]
Chapter Five – Moral Education of the Will Certain natures respond readily to the Master’s efforts; others, less docile, demand greater exertions. Some seem constituted for the express purpose of discouraging him. There is, however, no character so perverse as to be beyond reform through the grace of God and careful guidance of the persevering Master, as the following example shows: Jean Baptiste Berne Story :There is in our own religious family an example of the unhappy orphan who had grown up in ignorance and was subject to the most deplorable habits and who from the bedside of his dying mother came under the care of Father Champagnat. The Founder undertook the education of this child. By dint of care and persevering efforts, he managed to correct the evil tendencies of the little vagrant, so much so that the latter subsequently became a virtuous young man, was admitted to the Institute and died in the holiest dispositions.
Chapter Six – Catholic Education: Religious Instruction. The secondary end of our Institute is to procure the salvation of souls by instructing children in the truths of the Faith and training them in the practices of Christian virtue. [The primary aim was the salvation of our own soul.]Feelings which should inspire the Brother as Catechist: esteem, gratitude, zeal (zeal is one of the marks of the Marist.)
Chapter Seven – Catholic Education: Formation Need of the spirit of Faith on the part of the teacher. By regular contact between teacher and pupil – individual concern is of paramount importance [Presence]Charitable and kindly correction
Chapter Eight – Social Education [GOOD CITIZENS] Practical Suggestions: Foster love of one’s country Encourage them to discharge the duties of a citizen This chapter spells out in some detail the nature of good citizenship.
SECOND PART DISCIPLINE, TEACHING, ORGANISATION Chapter Nine – School Regulations Discipline is the soul of the educational establishment; discipline must be paternal. Affection: affection is not less necessary than religion .Silence in Class . The discipline of the individual class depends on the observance of silence: the silent teacher is sparing of his words and never employs them when a look or a sign is sufficient. Silence is essential for securing and maintaining good order in class: the teacher must not only require and exact it but above all must give the example himself.
Chapter Ten – Supervision Since the teacher is the guardian angel of his pupils, supervision is a matter of the gravest importance in the education of the child. Supervision should be unremitting but unobtrusive. In general the best means of maintaining silence, good order and discipline and of preserving the pupils from evil is to keep them constantly occupied.Games. Without unduly restraining the initiative of the pupils, preference should be given to well organised games which promote energetic movement and encourage large numbers of players . [Every child is important and should be given equal chances to participate and succeed.]An interesting note occurs concerning the charge of excessive supervision at boarding schools which may be prejudicial to the true and continuous development of character. In true discipline control is exercised voluntarily and the transition to the freer conditions of life after school can be effected without any serious detriment to a pupil’s development.
Chapter Eleven – Means to secure discipline Discipline should be paternal – Champagnat exhorted the Brothers to use moral motives as much as possible in exercising discipline instead of basing it on fear of punishment. Affection: The characteristic essential of good discipline consists in winning the affection of the pupils, and the infallible means of securing this is to love them. Champagnat says: "To educate children properly we must love them, but we must love them all alike." He says: "The spirit existing in the Brothers’ schools should be similar to that which animates the family."[I do not recall that this was ever mentioned when I was in training; though as a younger Brother I was frequently told about family spirit – as a fact about our schools rather than as something learnt for a book.] The kind of love required is not a partiality for their winsome ways, their artlessness and their innocence. To love the children for these reasons would be inadequate as it is the origin of favouritism and may lead to serious subversion – it is too feeble a prop to afford support in times of difficulty. It is not always to find the right balance between fear and love: in doubt, it is better to incline towards the lenient side.A teacher should never address the pupils in offensive terms. The whole wisdom of good government is embodied in the motto: "Gentle in manner, resolute in action."The appeal to conscience or sense of duty should never take the form of a discussion with a refractory pupil Emulation :Emulation is an inclination urging the pupil to equal or even surpass his companions – it is one of the most useful resources at the disposal of the teacher. Effort rather than success should be recompensed.
Chapter Twelve – Correction Our Common Rules tell us: "Of all the duties of the Brothers, the correction of their pupils is the most difficult and the one which requires on their part the greatest reflection, prudence, charity, calmness and patience." Children are seldom culpable unless through some neglect on the part of those in charge of them . (!)Experience suggests other little expedients: a timely warning, a sign, a warning glance, the separation of flighty neighbours, shifting a thoughtless pupil nearer. We are encouraged to punish rarely :Certain unusual conditions may make children fidgety: the weather, the approach of a holiday, etc. It is best not to drive them to extremes, but to exercise patience or turn their activity to something more appealing.to be dispassionate in punishment: In reprimands and punishments the teacher should possess his soul in peace and never display signs of anger or bad temper. Such behaviour is contrary to our Rules; The teacher should not be afraid to say: "I shall not correct you today because I am too angry." to take into account the age, the temperament, the character, the strength of the pupil – The teacher on these occasions should be the model of charity and politeness . He should refrain from sarcastic expressions, nicknames, taunts because of physical defects or the status of their parents – from all forms of offensive allusion.Punishment reserved to the Principal includes expulsion - the last and severest of all penalties. This is to be applied where there is no hope of amendment or where the conduct of the offender constitutes a danger to his fellow pupils: open offences against morals, persistent insubordination, scandalous expressions against religion, and similar other faults.Corporal punishment: "suffice it to say that this is strictly forbidden by our Rules." "Marcellin Champagnat was unremitting in his efforts to banish such methods from our schools. In doing so he was opposing the customs of the country and the spirit of the times in which he lived when corporal punishment was still recognised. This is a proud distinction we should endeavour to preserve for our Institute in whatever country we may be, notwithstanding the customs of the locality. Champagnat declared that he would regard corporal punishment as a serious abuse, and that a Brother of harsh and violent temper who would readily strike the pupils or ill treat them by abusive words was ill-fitted to the work of teaching." [HERE WE HAVE FAILED BADLY IN THE PAST – IT TOOK SOCIAL PRESSURE TO BRING ABOUT A CHANGE!!]
Chapter Thirteen – Methods and Modes of Teaching The expository method is not suitable for children. Champagnat had no esteem for the preaching Brother. The inventive method is the method that should generally predominate – there are many advantages to this method: it does not overwhelm the child’s mind. [In promoting the inventive method Champagnat put the emphasis on the child’s needs and not on the teacher’s fund of knowledge.] If the expository method is used, it should be interspersed with frequent questions. The art of questioning :Characteristics of good questions: Manner of accepting answers: Questions from pupils: There is no reason why he should not admit he does not know – this will not compromise him if the tone of the class is as it ought to be.[All these directions are aimed at getting the best out of the pupils, neither making work too difficult, nor putting the teacher beyond the reach of the pupils.] Modes of teaching: Champagnat adopted the class mode for the Institute though he admitted that the monitorial mode might be used alongside the class mode in certain situations. [NOTE: The text gives examples of when and how to use the different modes. The point of all this is that no child should be neglected or disadvantaged by the teacher’s classroom method, and that as far as possible individual differences and needs should be taken into consideration in one’s teaching. The chapter is an excellent example of the Marist approach to education: in loving the children equally the practical outcome is that each child is given the best possible opportunity to learn.]
Chapter Fourteen – General Means of Teaching Chapter Fifteen – Material Organisation Site, Classrooms, Playground and covered shed, Water closets and urinals, Cloak-room, School furniture Every school should have a well equipped library. [Nostra maxima culpa!]
PART THREE – THE RELIGIOUS EDUCATOR
Chapter Sixteen – Function, Qualities and Rewards of the Religious Educator. The teacher is the substitute and coadjutor of the parents and the priest. Function of the Religious Educator: Among all the callings to which people devote their lives there is none more exalted or more honourable than that of the religious educator . The religious educator is father, magistrate, apostle and soldier.Qualities of a Religious Educator: Affection and authority. The school is but an extension of the home Good sense Firmness Affability: patience, gentleness, tolerance and good nature Champagnat: "I do not like Brothers whose presence repels the pupils, but I esteem those who are qualified to do the greatest amount of good, that is those of a cheerful character whose manners are gentle and affable. To edify children and lead them to God, piety and virtue are not the only requisites; joined with these there must be pleasing and engaging manners." Piety. Professional skill Chapter Seventeen – The Student Teacher in the Scholasticate Chapter Eighteen – Brother Director and training of young teachers This may well be applied to our care for the welfare and on-going formation of our young teachers. Chapter Nineteen – The young Brother taking charge of a class Get a class list Seek out the trouble makers and those who are on side During the early days the chief concern is to study the character of the pupils Don’t be surprised at meeting difficulties Preserve peace of mind no matter the state of the class or how great the difficulties Be guided by the principal Learn from the other teachers Recommend the children to God in one’s prayers Chapter Twenty – The Guardian Angel, the Ideal Educator Like the Guardian Angel: A Brother will not allow himself to be repelled by the shortcomings and bad habits of his pupils, by their ignorance or vulgarity or their poverty. His zeal and charity should lead him to have a special predilection for those who are deficient in natural gifts and for those whose spiritual and physical needs are greatest.A Brother should never cease to pray for his pupils. A Brother ought to love his pupils solely for God, and should give to all the same care, the same consideration and the same attention. Chapter Twenty-One - Uniformity in Methods of Teaching One of the main objects in compiling this book is to achieve uniformity in the teaching and education throughout our schools. The adoption of individual methods throughout the school would lead to chaos. Uniformity is of great advantage to the pupils who then know what to expect from new teachers. It is a corrective to instability as well as promoting unity amongst the Brothers. PART FOUR – METHODS OF TEACHING CERTAIN SUBJECTS 22) Reading 23) Writing 24) The Mother Tongue 25) Continued 26) Arithmetic 27) Sacred History and National History 28) Geography 29) Nature Study 30) Gymnastics, Singing, Drawing Chapter Thirty-One - Practical Hints for Class Management All these suggestions are aimed at providing the best environment for each child to achieve the best possible education for himself. |